Earth Observation: A Global Perspective

The foremost contribution of space missions lies in their ability to continuously observe Earth’s systems. Satellites equipped with cutting-edge sensors deliver high-resolution data that are vital for climate analysis:

• Surface Temperature Monitoring: Instruments aboard satellites like NASA’s Aqua and Terra track variations in land and ocean temperatures, revealing trends associated with global warming.
• Sea-Level Rise Surveillance: Missions such as Jason-3 and Sentinel-6 provide critical measurements of ocean surface levels, aiding predictions of coastal vulnerability.
• Cryosphere Dynamics: Spacecraft including ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2 monitor ice sheet thickness and polar ice coverage, essential indicators of climate stability.
• Land Use and Deforestation Mapping: Programs like Landsat supply decades-long imagery datasets that help assess changes in vegetation, urbanization, and deforestation, all of which have direct climatic implications.

These observations provide an objective, comprehensive view unattainable through terrestrial methods, allowing scientists to detect even subtle environmental changes over time.

Atmospheric Research: Decoding Greenhouse Gas Dynamics

Space-based instruments offer unparalleled capabilities in tracking atmospheric constituents critical to climate regulation:

• Carbon Dioxide Concentrations: NASA’s OCO-2 satellite maps CO₂ distribution, enhancing understanding of anthropogenic and natural carbon fluxes.
• Methane Detection: ESA’s Sentinel-5P tracks methane emissions, assisting in pinpointing major leak sources, crucial given methane’s potent greenhouse effect.
• Aerosol Analysis: Monitoring the presence and movement of atmospheric aerosols informs models of radiation balance and cloud formation, both integral to climate predictions.

By providing continuous and global atmospheric data, space missions contribute significantly to refining climate models and forecasting future scenarios.

Enhancing Disaster Preparedness and Resilience

The intensification of extreme weather events is a direct consequence of a changing climate. Space missions support disaster risk reduction through:

• Hurricane and Cyclone Monitoring: Geostationary satellites like GOES-16 enable real-time tracking of severe storms, allowing for more effective evacuation strategies.
• Drought Assessment: Missions such as SMAP measure soil moisture levels, providing critical information for agricultural management and water resource planning.
• Wildfire Detection: Satellite programs like MODIS identify wildfires at early stages, even in remote regions, facilitating timely firefighting interventions.

Through early warning systems, satellite technologies reduce casualties and economic losses, strengthening community resilience against climate-driven disasters.

Supporting Scientific Research and Policy Development

Beyond observation, space missions actively facilitate climate research:

• International Space Station (ISS) Experiments: The ISS hosts studies on atmospheric chemistry, cloud microphysics, and plant biology under unique conditions, offering insights not replicable on Earth.
• Climate Model Validation: Data collected from space underpin the calibration and validation of complex climate models used by policymakers and researchers.
• Global Collaboration: Initiatives led by NASA, ESA, JAXA, and others foster international cooperation, promoting standardized datasets and joint missions that enhance global climate governance.

By merging empirical data with advanced modeling, space missions bridge the gap between scientific research and actionable climate policy.

Technological Innovations with Earth-Based Applications

Technologies initially developed for space exploration often find critical uses in addressing climate issues on Earth:

• Solar Energy Advancements: Innovations in photovoltaic technologies, originally designed to power spacecraft, have accelerated the growth of renewable energy industries.
• Water Purification Systems: Water recycling and purification technologies engineered for space habitats now support sustainable solutions in disaster areas and underserved regions.
• Lightweight Materials: High-performance materials used in aerospace applications contribute to the development of energy-efficient transportation and infrastructure.

These technological transfers demonstrate how investments in space exploration yield direct benefits for environmental sustainability.

The Next Frontier: Future Climate-Focused Space Missions

The next generation of space missions promises to further enhance climate action capabilities:

• NASA’s Earth System Observatory: This forthcoming constellation will provide comprehensive 3D observations of Earth’s atmosphere, land, and oceans.
• MethaneSAT Initiative: Backed by the Environmental Defense Fund, MethaneSAT will offer high-resolution mapping of methane emissions, targeting critical sectors like oil and gas.
• Copernicus Sentinel-7: Part of the European Union’s Earth observation program, Sentinel-7 will expand atmospheric monitoring with a focus on air quality and climate parameters.

Such initiatives exemplify the growing recognition that combating climate change demands not only terrestrial efforts but also sustained investment in space-based infrastructure.

Conclusion

Space missions are vital allies in the global endeavor to address climate change. By offering comprehensive Earth monitoring, advancing atmospheric science, enhancing disaster response, and fostering technological innovation, they provide critical tools for understanding and mitigating environmental threats. As climate challenges intensify, the synergy between space exploration and climate science will be pivotal in securing a sustainable future for our planet.

From orbit, we gain not just a strategic vantage point, but a powerful reminder: safeguarding Earth is a mission that extends beyond national borders and scientific disciplines — it is a mission for all humanity.

The post How Space Missions Contribute to Combating Climate Change on Earth appeared first on Cospar2020.

Music has traveled with humans into space almost from the very beginning of manned spaceflight. It provides comfort, boosts morale, helps regulate emotions, and even aids concentration. Let’s dive into the fascinating world of space playlists and find out what songs astronauts listen to while orbiting the Earth.

The Early Days: Music’s First Journey Beyond Earth

The tradition of bringing music into space started with early missions in the 1960s. During the Gemini 6 mission in 1965, astronauts Tom Stafford and Wally Schirra famously played a harmonica and sleigh bells, performing “Jingle Bells” as a holiday surprise for Mission Control. It was a playful moment, but it revealed just how vital music could be for mood and morale, even on short missions.

Since then, music has become an essential part of space culture. NASA and other space agencies have incorporated music not only as entertainment but also as part of psychological support for astronauts spending months away from Earth.

Wake-Up Songs: A Beloved NASA Tradition

One charming tradition started during the Apollo missions and continues to this day: the playing of wake-up songs. Mission Control in Houston would broadcast music to wake the astronauts each morning. Sometimes the choices were humorous, sometimes touching, and often personally meaningful to the crew.

Examples of famous wake-up songs include:

• “Here Comes the Sun” by The Beatles — Played for the crew of Apollo 12.
• “Rocket Man” by Elton John — A frequent favorite for obvious reasons.
• “What a Wonderful World” by Louis Armstrong — Used to remind astronauts of the beauty of Earth.
• “Hotel California” by The Eagles — Chosen for its themes of distance and surreal experiences.

Astronauts often choose their own songs or let their families pick something special. The ritual personalizes the distant, mechanical world of spaceflight and helps keep spirits high.

Modern Playlists: The Soundtrack of the ISS

Today’s astronauts have access to much more music thanks to digital technology. With devices like iPods, smartphones, and laptops, they can bring thousands of songs with them. NASA also provides a shared onboard music library, and sometimes astronauts even request songs through Mission Control.

So, what genres and songs are popular among modern astronauts?

• Classic Rock: Bands like Queen, Pink Floyd, and The Rolling Stones remain perennial favorites. Queen’s “Don’t Stop Me Now” has been called a “perfect space song” for its upbeat energy and adventurous lyrics.
• Pop and Contemporary Hits: Astronauts enjoy staying connected to Earth’s culture. Songs from artists like Coldplay, Imagine Dragons, and Ed Sheeran are often found on playlists.
• Classical Music: Pieces by composers like Beethoven, Mozart, and Bach offer astronauts a calming and reflective escape from the constant noise of machinery and the stress of space operations.
• Country Music: Many American astronauts, especially those from rural backgrounds, love bringing country classics into space, with songs from Johnny Cash, Willie Nelson, and Garth Brooks.
• Personal Favorites: Some astronauts bring unique or unexpected choices. Chris Hadfield, the Canadian astronaut, famously recorded his own version of David Bowie’s “Space Oddity” aboard the ISS, creating one of the most iconic space music videos ever.

Music and Mental Health in Space

Music isn’t just about entertainment in space — it plays a crucial role in mental health. Living aboard the ISS means dealing with isolation, confinement, and distance from loved ones. Music can:

• Reduce Stress: Listening to favorite songs lowers cortisol levels and helps astronauts manage the psychological strains of spaceflight.
• Boost Morale: Upbeat music lifts spirits, which is vital during long-duration missions.
• Strengthen Bonds: Crew members sometimes share playlists or play music together, creating a stronger sense of camaraderie.
• Aid Focus and Sleep: Certain types of music help with concentration during work or with relaxation before sleep.

Some astronauts even create specific playlists for different parts of the day — energizing songs for exercise, calming tracks for personal time, and motivational music for difficult tasks.

Special Musical Moments in Space History

Throughout the decades, there have been memorable musical moments in space:

• Chris Hadfield’s “Space Oddity”: As mentioned earlier, Hadfield recorded a beautiful version of Bowie’s iconic song aboard the ISS in 2013. Bowie himself praised it as “possibly the most poignant version of the song ever created.”
• STS-135 (Final Space Shuttle Mission): As a tribute, NASA’s Mission Control played “The Final Countdown” by Europe for the Atlantis crew.
• Yuri Gagarin’s Flight: Though no music was played during the first human spaceflight, it’s often noted that Gagarin sang Russian folk songs to himself during the journey to stay calm.
• Earth to Space Concerts: In recent years, musicians have live-streamed performances to the ISS. U2 once dedicated a song to the astronauts, and other artists have contributed as well.

The Future of Music in Space

As humanity looks toward longer missions — to the Moon, Mars, and beyond — music will likely become even more vital. Spacecraft may have dedicated music rooms or entertainment centers. Future astronauts might bring virtual reality concerts with them or even compose and perform new music on alien worlds.

Imagine future explorers listening to Beethoven while gazing out at the red dunes of Mars, or new songs written by the first interplanetary settlers. Music will travel with us, no matter how far we go.

In Conclusion

Music in space is more than just background noise — it’s a lifeline to Earth, a boost to the spirit, and a source of human connection in the most distant and challenging environments. Whether it’s classic rock, gentle classical tunes, or personal favorites, music reminds astronauts that no matter how far they are from home, they are still part of the human story.

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In 1998, a meteor shower occurred in the sky over Morocco. Scientists collected the pieces that survived their passage through the Earth’s atmosphere and preserved them in a space center, forgetting about them for years to come. But recently, scientists decided to conduct a thorough analysis of the fragments of fallen celestial bodies using X-ray spectroscopy.

Tiny crystals, halites, which could only form in the presence of water, were isolated from meteorites. Scientists were able to find complex organic compounds, including amino acids – according to modern concepts, these are the ingredients that were the basis for the origin of life on Earth.

This discovery not only confirms the possibility of bringing “bricks” for the origin of life on Earth from space, but also shows the possibility of the origin of life on other planets, where meteorites of similar chemical composition were brought.

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This is interesting: Einstein’s original work was called “Toward the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. The theory of relativity it became later, when the scientific world realized how accurately the work of a scientist describes the principle of relativity, which has plagued scientists since ancient times: for example, standing on the deck of a stationary ship and throwing a stone toward its bow, you will not feel any difference when you throw a stone if the ship sailed.

Without going into complicated calculations and formulas, we will recall the basic postulates of Einstein’s theories concerning the properties of space-time (and space and time, according to the Theory of Relativity, are inseparable from each other). In this case we are interested in two conclusions of the theory: space-time is curved under the influence of gravitational fields, and in any moving object we can observe the effect called relativistic time dilation. It turns out that in a body moving with non-zero velocity, all physical processes will go slower than if the body were at rest. That is, if you, for example, fly in an airplane, and your friend stayed at home, your time will go slower. Of course, in practice neither you nor your friend will feel the difference: it will be a billionth of a second.

But if you accelerate to a speed much greater than that of an airplane, the difference in time for you and your friend will be much greater. One year on a space rocket traveling at near-light speed can be equal to several hundred Earth years.

That’s interesting: but that doesn’t mean that if you were to get in such a rocket and accelerate to tremendous speed, you would experience a slo-mo effect. For you, time would flow as usual. But if an observer standing on Earth could see the clock in the cockpit of a flying rocket, it would seem to him that time would go slower on it. On the other hand, if you could see through the porthole of an ordinary Earth dweller’s watch, it would seem to you that it went slower than yours. And that’s because if you were in a rocket, it would be the Earth with all its inhabitants moving relative to you. But why would not all the inhabitants of Earth experience the time dilation effect, but only the astronaut? This can be explained by the fact that he experienced the processes of acceleration, being in the rocket, which means that the frames of reference for the Earth and the spacecraft were unequal (the Earth flew uniformly and straightly, and the rocket experienced the effects of acceleration).
gravity

But what if we are talking about more massive objects, such as our Earth? Indeed, its mass is enough to warp space-time around itself so strongly that we can see this difference using modern instruments. The closer to a massive body – the stronger is its gravitational influence, and therefore the slower goes time. This statement has been verified in numerous experiments, and time shifts are taken into account in information transmissions between the Earth and communication satellites.

This is interesting: in fact, you can check this for yourself at any time. One of the conclusions of the Theory of Relativity is that in a gravitational field, a free-falling body moves uniformly and in a straight line. Hit a soccer ball – first it flies up, and then, it falls down – to the Earth. In fact, the trajectory of the ball is perfectly straight, and it falls to the surface due to the curvature of space-time: at some point, the trajectories of the Earth and the ball will intersect.

It turns out that the unambiguous statement that time in space always goes slower or always goes faster is incorrect. In different parts of space, it will go differently. Somewhere faster and somewhere slower. Near, for example, black holes, it will slow down significantly, and in intergalactic space, away from stars and planets, on the contrary, go faster. In addition, when calculating the time for any object, it is important to consider its velocity parameters as well.

This is interesting: now we can say for sure that time should go faster on the Earth’s orbit than on the surface – because we are at a greater distance from a massive object, i.e. our planet. To confirm, let’s give out absolutely synchronously running atomic clocks to the cosmonaut and you, reconciling them before launching the rocket. Where to send the astronaut? To the ISS, the International Space Station, of course. Imagine that after living for a year in orbit and returning home the first thing the astronaut did was not to go through medical checks and see his family – he checked the time against your atomic clock. You will be surprised to find that the cosmonaut’s watch… is lagging – his time went slower! How is this possible: after all he was at a greater distance from the massive object than we were?

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The unfortunate person will immediately turn into an ice cube

One can answer with certainty that one is not destined to turn into an ice block instantly. Space, of course, is very cold, but its density is extremely low. Therefore, the human body will not be able to transfer its heat – because there is nothing around. By the way, one of the main problems on the ISS is not to protect the crew from the cold, but, on the contrary, to remove heat from the station.

Man will be incinerated by cosmic radiation

Space radiation is certainly dangerous. Charged particles pierce an astronaut, causing radiation sickness. But to get a lethal dose, you need to spend quite a long time in space, during which time you will have time to die under the influence of other factors. Normal clothing covering your body can protect your body from most burns. But if you end up in space completely naked, the effects of even a short stay can be bad.

Blood boils due to low pressure

But what if a person’s blood boils and ruptures blood vessels? After all, there is very low pressure in space, which helps reduce the boiling point of the fluid. But the blood inside the body will continue to be under its own pressure and in order to boil it will need to reach a temperature of 46 ° C, which, as we know, is not observed in living people. But if you stick your tongue out, you will feel your saliva boiling. But in this case there will be no burns, because it will boil at a low temperature.

An astronaut will explode because of the pressure drop

The pressure in space is dangerous in another way: because of its difference the human’s internal organs may enlarge and the body will swell up to two times. But you won’t be able to burst and “splash” your insides into space: our skin has enough elasticity to restrain such a strong expansion, and if you wear tight clothes your dimensions will remain the same as before.

You won’t be able to breathe

Pressure is a great danger to our respiratory system. As far as we remember, there is no oxygen in space, so the amount of time a person can live without a spacesuit depends on how long they can go without breathing. But it would not be as if we were underwater, where all we have to do is hold our breath and try to swim out. If you hold your breath in a vacuum, the difference in pressure will simply rupture your lungs, and then it will be impossible to save the person. The only way to prolong your life is to allow the gases to escape from your body rapidly (this can cause trouble, such as emptying your bowels or stomach). When the oxygen rapidly leaves your body, you will have about 14 seconds while the oxygenated blood continues to feed your brain, and then you will lose consciousness. But does this mean inevitable death? No! Our seemingly fragile organism can survive even in such an alien and hostile environment. Scientists believe that if a person after a minute and a half stay in outer space is taken to a safe place, he will not only survive, but also fully recover his functions in a few days.

Experiments on animals have shown that chimpanzees, even after a three-minute stay in conditions close to a vacuum, in a few hours come back to normal. At the same time they had the above described symptoms: body expansion and loss of consciousness due to lack of oxygen. Experiments with dogs showed that our four-legged friends endure vacuum much worse than chimpanzees: the survival limit is no more than two minutes.

Experiments with chimpanzees and dogs should not be completely trusted: the human and animal bodies may react differently to their environment. And, although no one will do such experiments on humans, we can judge the effects of the vacuum on the human body by the accidents that have happened to astronauts. In 1965, technician Jim LeBlanc tested in a vacuum chamber the tightness of a new spacesuit that was intended for lunar expeditions. During one of the tests, when the pressure in the chamber was close to the space pressure, the suit depressurized and the person lost consciousness after 14 seconds. The standard procedure to restore pressure to normal took 30 minutes, while the team of scientists risked speeding up the process and restored pressure in just a minute and a half! Consciousness returned to Leblanc when the pressure in the pressure chamber corresponded to the earth pressure at an altitude of 4.5 km above sea level. Another incident is the flight of the Soyuz-11 spacecraft. During the descent of the spacecraft to the ground, the spacecraft depressurized. A small vent valve, one and a half centimeters in size, which did not open in time, caused the death of three cosmonauts. According to the recording equipment, all three lost consciousness 22 seconds after depressurization, and vitality stopped registering after 2 minutes. In total, the crew spent about 11.5 minutes in near vacuum space. When the spacecraft landed and the welcoming team opened the hatch, it was already too late to resuscitate the astronauts.

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But in order to leave the limits of a black hole, an object must accelerate to a speed greater than the speed of light. Modern physics believes that nothing in the Universe can move faster than the speed of light – and neither can the quanta of light itself, of course. That is why we can claim that nothing, not even light, can leave a black hole.

Or can it? The amazing world of quantum mechanics claims that a black hole can radiate into space, too. To understand how this becomes possible, we need to talk about what our space represents at the level of elementary particles.

Quantum field theory states that all space-time of the Universe at any point is different energy fields. If we take empty space – physical vacuum – measure it with the most accurate modern instruments and see that not a single photon is observed in this space, then we can say that the field is in the state of the lowest energy, that is not able to give energy. So the energy of the field is zero? Not at all. Even in this case it is impossible to accurately (definitely) measure the energy of the field, otherwise it would violate the uncertainty principle (or Heisenberg principle), the basis of quantum mechanics. It turns out that even in the state with the lowest energy we can set the value of the field energy only by the probability distribution. And this means that in physical vacuum various fluctuations will always occur.

Quantum theory explains their existence by constant birth and annihilation of virtual particles and antiparticles. Why virtual? Because it happens in such short time intervals (about 10-24 sec.), that we simply can not register these particles. Initially the existence of virtual particles was found on paper – during the derivation of formulas – and for a long time was questioned as only a mathematical description of reality. However, scientists now know for sure that virtual particles exist – they react with ordinary real particles, changing characteristics of the latter, which has been repeatedly confirmed by various experiments. Yes, the world at the quantum level looks quite different from our everyday world, but is a kind of boiling broth, in which new particles are constantly born and destroyed out of nowhere. Theoretically, when an external field affects the vacuum, a pair of virtual particles can be transformed into a pair of real ones by applying energy.

Now let us imagine that pairs of virtual particles are born on the very event horizon of a black hole. Among innumerable such pairs there may arise one which under the influence of the gravitational field will turn into a real state. There will come a moment when one of the particles will fall into the black hole and the other one will be able to avoid the fall by taking a lucky trajectory of flight, which as if from a sling will “kick” the particle back into space, giving it a huge acceleration.

Note that the real particles were not born by themselves – a black hole created them with its energy, radiating then one of the particles into space. It is possible to calculate that the first particle which has fallen over the event horizon could not compensate to a black hole loss in energy which it spent for transformation of virtual particles into real ones, and then for giving impulse to the second particle. It turns out that the black hole not only radiated a particle into space, but also lost part of its energy, and hence mass, because of it. Theoretically, with time it should simply evaporate – after all every instant countless virtual particles are born, and matter near a black hole sooner or later ends.

This radiation is named after the famous theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking and is called the “Hawking radiation”. It is possible to prove or disprove Stephen Hawking’s theory by measuring the thermal spectrum of radiation near the event horizon of the black hole, but modern technology has not yet reached the necessary level for such complex observations. There is still a fierce debate about the existence of Hawking’s radiation.

This is interesting: some physicists believe that it is Hawking’s radiation that vaporizes those microscopic black holes that could theoretically arise during experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.

The discovery of vanishing black holes could put an end to the debate – each vaporization should theoretically end in a grand explosion. However, so far no traces of such occurrences have been found – most likely, the age of the Universe is still too small for even the first black holes formed in it to come to the end of their lives.

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